Quantitative Genetics and Evolution-Le Moulon

Set of wheat experiments at the Moulon site in Essonne, Île-de-France. In the first row, a nursery has been set up to study the responses of various wheat varieties to vernalisation using spring seeding. The most sensitive wheats will not reach the ear emergence stage, but will remain at the vegetative stage. In the background, there are experimental plots of wheat varieties for selection as part of the INRA wheat network. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le…

Ears of bearded common wheat, Triticum aestivum, in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation),…

Wheat seedlings in winter at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This wheat is sown in October – it requires vernalisation (cold temperatures) for the ears to develop. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to…

Experimental wheat plots at the Moulon site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This experimental site is divided into micro-plots (7 m²) to evaluate wheat varieties for selection as part of the INRA network. The colour of the plots shows the variation in the maturity of the wheat: the earliest maturing wheat has started to ripen. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits…

Experimental wheat plots at the Moulon site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This experimental site is divided into micro-plots (7 m²) to evaluate wheat varieties for selection as part of the INRA network. The colour of the plots shows the variation in the maturity of the wheat: the earliest maturing wheat has started to ripen. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits…

Wheat nursery at the Moulon experimental farm site in Essonne, Île-de-France. At this site, experiments are performed on wheat varieties to study their interactions with a view to optimising mixtures. At the bottom, each variety is cultivated in a single row and interacts with the two neighbouring varieties. Their competition, complementation and mutual facilitation in terms of resource use are quantified in detail. The control plants are at the top: each variety is sown in three rows. The…

Marked sterile wheat ear in a field at the Moulon site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Wheat flowers are hermaphroditic and contain the ovule and the stamens. They generally self-fertilise, although certain genes result in infertility of the male reproductive function, and in this case fertilisation is carried out by another plant that is fertile. An ear with a sterile male function was marked in May, when researchers can identify them due to the separation of the glumes to allow the pistil to…

Self-fertilisation of a wheat ear in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists are protecting the ear with a paper bag to ensure that self-fertilisation takes place. Self-fertilisation over several generations makes it possible to obtain pure lines. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the…

Flowering wheat ear from the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Each spikelet has three flowers, which each have three stamens. The stamens in the external flowers, which are more mature that the central flower (yellow stamens), are open, and have already released their pollen. Dissection shows an ovule that has already been fertilised. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both…

Flowering wheat ear in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. The ear flowers in several stages: the spikelets at the top have stamens that are still full (yellow), while the stamens of those in the middle, which flower earlier, have already released their pollen. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the…

Wheat tests in experimental plots at the Moulon site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This experimental site is divided into micro-plots (7 m²) to evaluate wheat varieties for selection as part of the INRA network. All the wheat varieties have matured, but variations can still be seen: bearded/non-bearded ears and different plant heights. The tall varieties have lodged. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control…

Wheat nursery at the Moulon experimental farm site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This experimental site is divided into micro-plots (7 m²) to evaluate wheat varieties for selection as part of the INRA network. All the wheat varieties have matured, but variations can still be seen: bearded/non-bearded ears and different plant heights. The tall varieties have lodged. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of…

Wheat grown in a tunnel at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. This experimental device is used for ancient wheat varieties that are tall and prone to lodging. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target…

Harvest of the wheat nurseries at the Moulon experimental farm site in Essonne, Île-de-France. After harvesting using a billhook, the plants are measured and the ears cut and weighed. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target…

Ear of Triticum tauschii, one of the "ancestors" of common wheat, at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation),…

Ear of cultivated emmer wheat Triticum turgidum, a heritage wheat variety, at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and…

Ear of poulard wheat Triticum turgidum, an ancient bearded wheat variety, at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation…

Ear of poulard wheat Triticum turgidum, an ancient bearded wheat variety, at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation…

Ears of mature bearded common wheat, Triticum aestivum, in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation),…

Ears of common wheat, Triticum aestivum, in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation), incorporating…

Ear of common wheat, Triticum aestivum, in a field at the Moulon experimental site in Essonne, Île-de-France. Research scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution - Le Moulon unit study the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of both qualitative and quantitative traits, and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimize the selection process according to target characteristics (growth, development and adaptation), incorporating…

Planting maize on an experimental plot in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The seed bins containing the grains on the experimental planter empty into splayed tubes, making it possible to plant four rows. Technicians watch to ensure that grains fall at an even cadence, and check the intervals between grains. A third technician refills the seed bins on the conveyor. Metal foil is used to mark the start and end of plots where the seed bins must be changed. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics…

Protecting young maize plants against crows in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. A net is laid over the plot as soon as planting is complete, to prevent crows from digging up the grains of maize. The netting is removed when the plants become autotrophic (i.e. capable of feeding themselves using photosynthesis and nutriments in the soil) at around the five-leaf stage). In suburban areas, a resurgence in versatile birds such as pigeons and crows is prompting farmers to grow less vulnerable species,…

Removing crow protection netting from young maize plants in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. A net is laid over the plot as soon as planting is complete, to prevent crows from digging up the grains of maize. The netting is removed when the plants become autotrophic (i.e. capable of feeding themselves using photosynthesis and nutriments in the soil) at around the five-leaf stage). In suburban areas, a resurgence in versatile birds such as pigeons and crows is prompting farmers to grow less…

Several varieties of maize being grown on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The varieties are grown in 3 m rows. Some plants develop earlier than others, depending on their genetic makeup. The row on the right has reached maturity, with fully developed ears and panicles. The row on the left is still in the growth phase. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and…

Female reproductive organ of maize in flower, in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. A tassel of silks can be seen at the top of the ear, wrapped in green spathes. Each silk will become a grain in the ear. Each grain will be fertilised by pollen, produced inside a tube inside the silk, that reaches the ovule. The colour is not indicative of maturity, but depends on the genetic traits of each variety. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic,…

Female reproductive organ of maize after flowering, in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. A tassel of silks can be seen at the top of the ear, wrapped in red spathes. The colours of the flowers, spathes and stalk depend on the genetic traits of the variety. To a large extent, maize metabolises only red pigments (anthocyanins). Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative…

Male reproductive organ of maize coming into flower, in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The tassel, located at the top of the plant, consists of several strands bearing the spikelets that contain the stamens. The emergence of stamens on the main strand determines the plant's male flowering status. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance…

Male reproductive organ of maize coming into flower, in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The tassel, located at the top of the plant, consists of several strands bearing the spikelets that contain the stamens. The emergence of stamens on the main strand determines the plant's male flowering status. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance…

Male reproductive organ of maize after flowering, in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The tassel at the top of the plant has several strands bearing male flowers consisting of spikelets. Each spikelet contains two florets consisting of three stamens. The stamen, suspended from a style, has an anther containing four pollen sacs. The anthers are at varying stages of bloom. A bee is collecting pollen. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic,…

Pure lines of maize are obtained by self-fertilisation on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The female maize flowers are protected against extraneous fertilisation. An ear on each plant is protected until ready to be fertilised. The ear is fertilised manually with pollen from the tassel situated at the top of the plant (self-fertilisation). Only the uppermost ("dominant") ear is fertilised. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are…

Pure lines of maize are obtained by self-fertilisation on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. The female maize flowers are protected against extraneous fertilisation by a paper bag, which is transparent to enable the flowering stage to be monitored. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and…

Pure lines of maize are obtained by manual self-fertilisation of ears in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. When male and female inflorescences bloom simultaneously, fresh pollen from the plant is collected in a bag by shaking the tassel. The ear is released from its protective bag. The bag of pollen is placed over it. The fertilised ear begins to swell after ten days (which is the grain abortion limit). Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the…

Pure lines of maize are obtained by self-fertilisation on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. This image shows a plant with a fertilised ear enclosed in an adjacent manual fertilisation bag that also contains a later-flowering plant with a female ear still bagged to protect it from extraneous pollen. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative…

Pure lines of maize are obtained by self-fertilisation on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. Fertilisation is now complete, and the ears are waiting for the grain to reach maturity inside their bag. The bag remains as an indicator of the manual treatment and helps to protect against grain-eating wildlife such as crows and small rodents. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of…

Dissecting an ear of maize during grain maturation on an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. Each fertilised ovule has produced a grain of corn. At the top of the ear, a number of ovules have aborted, probably due to a stress factor such as drought conditions. The long stigmata (silks) on the right have dried out. The ear of maize is protected by a leafy husk, which has been stripped away to reveal the ear. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon…

Head smut in maize at the experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. This disease is caused by the parasitic fungus sphacelotheca reiliana, the spores of which can survive in the soil for several years. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimise selection…

Common smut in maize at the experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. This disease is caused by the parasitic fungus ustilago maydis. This fungus is edible. When young, it is eaten in Mexico, where it is known by the name "huitlacoche". Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant…

Maize genotype analyses: leaf DNA extraction. Grinding plant material in a lysis buffer breaks the cell walls, releasing their contents. Chlorophyll is responsible for the natural green colour. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimise selection processes based on…

Maize genotype analyses: leaf DNA extraction. Grinding plant material in a lysis buffer breaks the cell walls, releasing their contents. The foam is caused by the detergent in the buffer, and chlorophyll is responsible for the natural green colour. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of…

Maize genotype analyses: leaf DNA extraction. Grinding plant material in a lysis buffer breaks the cell walls, releasing their contents. Chlorophyll is responsible for the natural green colour. Here, the ground plant matter and the extraction medium are being homogenised. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and…

Maize genotype analyses: leaf DNA extraction. Plant matter is first ground in a lysis buffer and then separated in a centrifuge. Leaf waste, including cell walls, is denser, collecting at the bottom. The supernatant will contain DNA, mixed with carbohydrates, proteins and pigments. Additional centrifuging will separate these components according to their respective densities, in order to obtain and subsequently analyse the pure DNA fraction. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution…

Studying the development dynamics of a maize plant at an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. Scientists use felt pen to mark the third leaf on a maize plant. Plants continue to develop almost throughout their lives. In maize, leaves sprout and die until the plant flowers. To count the total number of leaves on a plant, they must be marked as and when they sprout. This is the third leaf to be marked. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are…

Studying the development dynamics of a maize plant at an experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. Scientists measure the rate at which new leaves sprout. Throughout the season, numerous characteristics are measured on each plant in the experimental crop, including the number of leaves, leaf area, flowering date, ear insertion rank, etc. This data, together with the plot's climate characteristics, are used to build a mathematical model of plant development. Ultimately, this research…

Wheat nursery at the experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. To monitor plant growth, the distance between the ground and the tip of various leaves is measured at regular intervals. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their importance in the adaptation and evolutionary history of plant species. They optimise selection processes based on…

Studying maize development dynamics by dissecting plants grown on the experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. These measurements are made at regular intervals, on several plants with a variety of genotypes. They are used to describe each genotype. Each of the plant's organs is dissected and measured. Lastly, as shown here, scientists measure internode lengths. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular…

A plate of mature maize leaves produced for the maize development dynamics study. Scientists are interested in estimating the surface area and shape of the leaves, by making measurements at regular intervals on several plants with different genotypes. These measurements are used to describe each genotype. Scientists at the Quantitative Genetics and Evolution unit in Le Moulon are studying the genetic, epigenetic and molecular control of qualitative and quantitative characteristics and their…

Maize epidermal tissue, viewed through an optical microscope. Cell walls and nucleus membranes are stained with toluidine blue dye. Four different cell types can be seen. The large oblong cells are mesophyll cells. The egg-shaped structures are stomata, accompanied by two guard cells. This fragment of epidermis is divided into two parts by a rib: the large, elongated cells of the perivascular sheath surround the (invisible) vascular tissue. The blue colouring of the walls, and the serrated…

Studying maize development dynamics by dissecting plants grown on the experimental farm in Le Moulon, in the Paris region. These measurements are made at regular intervals, on several plants with a variety of genotypes. They are used to describe each genotype. Each of the plant's organs has been dissected and measured: the leaves and stalk are shown in the foreground, and the future male and female reproductive organs (tassels and future ears (at top-right), respectively) are visible in the…